Description: Peter The Great, 1696-1718. Silver Denga, NGC AU55. Russia.Peter I(9 June[O.S.30 May]1672 8 February[O.S.28 January]1725),most commonly known asPeter the Great,was aRussian monarchwho ruled theTsardom of Russiafrom 7 May[O.S.27 April]1682 to 1721 and subsequently theRussian Empireuntil his death in 1725,jointly rulingwith his elder half-brother,Ivan Vuntil 1696. He is primarily credited with the modernisation of the country, transforming it into a European power.Through a number of successful wars, he captured ports atAzovand theBaltic Sea, laying the groundwork for theImperial Russian Navy, ending uncontestedSwedishsupremacy in the Baltic and beginning the Tsardom's expansion into a much largerempirethat became a major European power. He led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific,Westernisedand based onthe Enlightenment.[1]Peter's reforms had a lasting impact on Russia, and many institutions of the Russian government trace their origins to his reign. He adopted the title of Emperor in place of the old title of Tsar in 1721, and founded and developed the city ofSaint Petersburg, which remained the capital of Russia until 1918. The first Russian universitySaint Petersburg State Universitywas founded a year before his death, in 1724. The second one,Moscow State University, was founded 30 years after his death, during the reign of his daughterElizabeth. Peter implemented sweepingreformsaimed atmodernizingRussia.[11]Heavily influenced by his advisors from Western Europe, Peter reorganized the Russian army along modern lines and dreamed of making Russia amaritime power. He faced much opposition to these policies at home but brutally suppressed rebellions against his authority, including by theStreltsy,Bashkirs,Astrakhan, and the greatest civil uprising of his reign, theBulavin Rebellion. Peter implemented social modernization in an absolute manner by introducing French andwestern dressto his court and requiring courtiers, state officials, and the military to shave their beards and adopt modern clothing styles.[12]One means of achieving this end was the introduction oftaxes for long beardsand robes in September 1698.[13] In his process to westernize Russia, he wanted members of his family to marry other European royalty. In the past, his ancestors had been snubbed at the idea, but now, it was proving fruitful. He negotiated withFrederick William, Duke of Courlandto marry his niece,Anna Ivanovna. He used the wedding in order to launch his new capital,St Petersburg, where he had already ordered building projects of westernized palaces and buildings. Peter hired Italian and German architects to design it.[14] As part of his reforms, Peter started an industrialization effort that was slow but eventually successful. Russian manufacturing and main exports were based on the mining and lumber industries. For example, by the end of the century Russia came to export more iron than any other country in the world.[15] To improve his nation's position on the seas, Peter sought more maritime outlets. His only outlet at the time was theWhite SeaatArkhangelsk. TheBaltic Seawas at the time controlled bySwedenin the north, while theBlack Seaand theCaspian Seawere controlled by theOttoman EmpireandSafavid Empirerespectively in the south. Peter attempted to acquire control of the Black Sea, which would require expelling theTatarsfrom the surrounding areas. As part of an agreement withPolandthat cededKievto Russia, Peter was forced to wage war against theCrimeanKhanand against the Khan's overlord, the Ottoman Sultan. Peter's primary objective became the capture of the Ottoman fortress ofAzov, near theDon River. In the summer of 1695 Peter organized theAzov campaignsto take the fortress, but his attempts ended in failure. Peter returned to Moscow in November 1695 and began building a large navy. He launched about thirty ships against the Ottomans in 1696, capturing Azov in July of that year. On 12 September 1698, Peter officially founded the firstRussian Navybase,Taganrogon theSea of Azov. Peter knew that Russia could not face the Ottoman Empire alone. In 1697, he traveled "incognito" to Western Europe on an 18-month journey with a large Russian delegationthe so-called"Grand Embassy". He used a fake name, allowing him to escape social and diplomatic events, but since he was far taller than most others, he did not fool anyone of importance. One goal was to seek the aid of European monarchs, but Peter's hopes were dashed. France was a traditional ally of the Ottoman Sultan, andAustriawas eager to maintain peace in the east while conducting its own wars in the west. Peter, furthermore, had chosen an inopportune moment: the Europeans at the time were more concerned about theWar of Spanish Successionover who would succeed the childless KingCharles II of Spainthan about fighting the Ottoman Sultan.[6] The "Grand Embassy" continued nevertheless. While visiting theNetherlands, Peter learned much about life in Western Europe. He studied shipbuilding[16]inZaandam(the house he lived in is now a museum, theCzar Peter House) andAmsterdam, where he visited, among others, the upper-class DeWilde family.Jacob de Wilde, a collector-general with theAdmiralty of Amsterdam, had a well-known collection of art and coins, and DeWilde's daughterMaria de Wildemade an engraving of the meeting between Peter and her father, providing visual evidence of "the beginning of the West European classical tradition in Russia".[17]According to Roger Tavernier, Peter the Great later acquired DeWilde's collection.[18] Thanks to the mediation ofNicolaes Witsen, mayor of Amsterdam and an expert on Russia, the Tsar was given the opportunity to gain practical experience in the largest shipyard in the world, belonging to theDutch East India Company, for a period of four months. The Tsar helped with the construction of anEast Indiamanship specially laid down for him:Peter and Paul. During his stay the Tsar engaged many skilled workers such as builders of locks, fortresses, shipwrights, and seamenincludingCornelis Cruys, a vice-admiral who became, underFranz Lefort, the Tsar's advisor in maritime affairs. Peter later put his knowledge of shipbuilding to use in helping build Russia's navy.[19]Peter paid a visit to surgeonFrederik Ruysch, who taught him how to draw teeth and catch butterflies, and toLudolf Bakhuysen, a painter of seascapes.Jan van der Heyden, the inventor of the fire hose, received Peter, who was keen to learn and pass on his knowledge to his countrymen. On 16 January 1698 Peter organized a farewell party and invitedJohan Huydecoper van Maarsseveen, who had to sit between Lefort and the Tsar and drink Peter knew that Russia could not face the Ottoman Empire alone. In 1697, he traveled "incognito" to Western Europe on an 18-month journey with a large Russian delegationthe so-called"Grand Embassy". He used a fake name, allowing him to escape social and diplomatic events, but since he was far taller than most others, he did not fool anyone of importance. One goal was to seek the aid of European monarchs, but Peter's hopes were dashed. France was a traditional ally of the Ottoman Sultan, andAustriawas eager to maintain peace in the east while conducting its own wars in the west. Peter, furthermore, had chosen an inopportune moment: the Europeans at the time were more concerned about theWar of Spanish Successionover who would succeed the childless KingCharles II of Spainthan about fighting the Ottoman Sultan. The "Grand Embassy" continued nevertheless. While visiting theNetherlands, Peter learned much about life in Western Europe. He studied shipbuildinginZaandam(the house he lived in is now a museum, theCzar Peter House) andAmsterdam, where he visited, among others, the upper-class DeWilde family.Jacob de Wilde, a collector-general with theAdmiralty of Amsterdam, had a well-known collection of art and coins, and DeWilde's daughterMaria de Wildemade an engraving of the meeting between Peter and her father, providing visual evidence of "the beginning of the West European classical tradition in Russia".]According to Roger Tavernier, Peter the Great later acquired DeWilde's collection. Thanks to the mediation ofNicolaes Witsen, mayor of Amsterdam and an expert on Russia, the Tsar was given the opportunity to gain practical experience in the largest shipyard in the world, belonging to theDutch East India Company, for a period of four months. The Tsar helped with the construction of anEast Indiamanship specially laid down for him:Peter and Paul. During his stay the Tsar engaged many skilled workers such as builders of locks, fortresses, shipwrights, and seamenincludingCornelis Cruys, a vice-admiral who became, underFranz Lefort, the Tsar's advisor in maritime affairs. Peter later put his knowledge of shipbuilding to use in helping build Russia's navy.Peter paid a visit to surgeonFrederik Ruysch, who taught him how to draw teeth and catch butterflies, and toLudolf Bakhuysen, a painter of seascapes.Jan van der Heyden, the inventor of the fire hose, received Peter, who was keen to learn and pass on his knowledge to his countrymen. On 16 January 1698 Peter organized a farewell party and invitedJohan Huydecoper van Maarsseveen, who had to sit between Lefort and the Tsar and drink In 1698, Peter sent a delegation toMalta, under boyarBoris Sheremetev, to observe the training and abilities of theKnights of Maltaand theirfleet. Sheremetev investigated the possibility of future joint ventures with the Knights, including action against the Turks and the possibility of a future Russian naval base. Peter's visits to the West impressed upon him the notion that European customs were in several respects superior to Russian traditions. He commanded all of his courtiers and officials to wear European clothing and cut off their long beards, causing his Boyars, who were very fond of their beards, great upset.Boyars who sought to retain their beards were required to pay an annualbeard taxof one hundredrubles. Peter also sought to end arranged marriages, which were the norm among the Russian nobility, because he thought such a practice was barbaric and led to domestic violence, since the partners usually resented each other. In 1699, Peter changed the date of the celebration of the new year from 1 September to 1 January. Traditionally, the years were reckoned from the purportedcreation of the World, but after Peter's reforms, they were to be counted from thebirth of Christ. Thus, in the year 7207 of the old Russian calendar, Peter proclaimed that theJulian Calendarwas in effect and the year was 1700. Great Northern War Peter made a temporary peace with the Ottoman Empire that allowed him to keep the captured fort of Azov, and turned his attention to Russian maritime supremacy. He sought to acquire control of the Baltic Sea, which had been taken by theSwedish Empirea half-century earlier. Peter declared war on Sweden, which was at the time led by the young KingCharles XII. Sweden was also opposed byDenmarkNorway,Saxony, and thePolishLithuanian Commonwealth. 1859 Russia was ill-prepared to fight the Swedes, and their first attempt at seizing the Baltic coast ended in disaster at theBattle of Narvain 1700. In the conflict, the forces of Charles XII, rather than employ a slow methodical siege, attacked immediately using a blinding snowstorm to their advantage. After the battle, Charles XII decided to concentrate his forces against the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth, which gave Peter time to reorganize the Russian army. While the Poles fought the Swedes, Peter founded the city ofSaint Petersburgin 1703, inIngermanland(a province of theSwedish Empirethat he had captured). It was named after his patron saintSaint Peter. He forbade the building of stone edifices outside Saint Petersburg, which he intended to become Russia's capital, so that all stonemasons could participate in the construction of the new city. Peter moved the capital to St. Petersburg in 1703. While the city was being built he lived in a three-room log cabin with Catherine, where she did the cooking and caring for the children, and he tended a garden as though they were an ordinary couple.[citation needed]Between 1713 and 1728, and from 1732 to 1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. Following several defeats, Polish KingAugustus II the Strongabdicated in 1706. Swedish king Charles XII turned his attention to Russia, invading it in 1708. After crossing into Russia, Charles defeated Peter atGolovchinin July. In theBattle of Lesnaya, Charles suffered his first loss after Peter crushed a group of Swedish reinforcements marching fromRiga. Deprived of this aid, Charles was forced to abandon his proposed march on Moscow.[27] Charles XII refused to retreat to Poland or back to Sweden and instead invadedUkraine. Peter withdrew his army southward, employingscorched earth, destroying along the way anything that could assist the Swedes. Deprived of local supplies, the Swedish army was forced to halt its advance in the winter of 17081709. In the summer of 1709, they resumed their efforts to captureRussian-ruled Ukraine, culminating in theBattle of Poltavaon 27 June. The battle was a decisive defeat for the Swedish forces, ending Charles' campaign in Ukraine and forcing him south to seek refuge in the Ottoman Empire. Russia had defeated what was considered to be one of the world's best militaries, and the victory overturned the view that Russia was militarily incompetent. In Poland, Augustus II was restored as King. Peter, overestimating the support he would receive from his Balkan allies, attacked the Ottoman Empire, initiating theRusso-Turkish War of 1710.[28]Peter's campaign in the Ottoman Empire was disastrous, and in the ensuingTreaty of the Pruth, Peter was forced to return the Black Sea ports he had seized in 1697.[28]In return, the Sultan expelled Charles XII. The Ottomans called himMad Peter(Turkish:deli Petro), for his willingness to sacrifice large numbers of his troops in wartime.[29] Normally, the Boyar Duma would have exercised power during his absence. Peter, however, mistrusted the boyars; he instead abolished the Duma and created aSenateof ten members. The Senate was founded as the highest state institution to supervise all judicial, financial and administrative affairs. Originally established only for the time of the monarch's absence, the Senate became a permanent body after his return. A special high official, the Ober-Procurator, served as the link between the ruler and the senate and acted, in Peter own words, as "the sovereign's eye". Without his signature no Senate decision could go into effect; the Senate became one of the most important institutions of Imperial Russia.[ Peter's northern armies took the Swedish province ofLivonia(the northern half of modernLatvia, and the southern half of modernEstonia), driving the Swedes intoFinland. In 1714 the Russian fleet won theBattle of Gangut. Most of Finland wasoccupied by the Russians. In 1716 and 1717, the Tsar revisited the Netherlands and went to seeHerman Boerhaave. He continued his travel to theAustrian Netherlandsand France, where he obtained many books and proposed a marriage between his daughter and KingLouis XV. Peter obtained the assistance of theElectorate of Hanoverand theKingdom of Prussia. The Tsar's navy was powerful enough that the Russians could penetrate Sweden. Still, Charles XII refused to yield, and not until his death in battle in 1718 did peace become feasible. After the battle nearland, Sweden made peace with all powers but Russia by 1720. In 1721, theTreaty of Nystadended the Great Northern War. Russia acquiredIngria,Estonia,Livonia, and a substantial portion ofKarelia. In turn, Russia paid two millionRiksdalerand surrendered most of Finland. The Tsar retained some Finnish lands close to Saint Petersburg, which he had made his capital in 1712. Peter's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On 22 October 1721, soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was officially proclaimedEmperor of All Russia. Some proposed that he take the titleEmperor of the East, but he refused.Gavrila Golovkin, the State Chancellor, was the first to add "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor ofAll the Russias" to Peter's traditional title Tsar following a speech by the archbishop ofPskovin 1721. Peter's imperial title was recognized byAugustus II of Poland,Frederick William I of Prussia, andFrederick I of Sweden, but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the wordemperorconnoted superiority or pre-eminence over kings. Several rulers feared that Peter would claim authority over them, just as theHoly Roman Emperorhad claimedsuzeraintyover all Christian nations. In 1717,Alexander Bekovich-Cherkasskyled the first Russian military expedition into Central Asia against theKhanate of Khiva. The expedition ended in complete disaster when the entire expeditionary force was slaughtered. In 1718, Peter investigated why the formerly Swedish province ofLivoniawas so orderly. He discovered that the Swedes spent as much administering Livonia (300 times smaller than his empire) as he spent on the entire Russian bureaucracy. He was forced to dismantle the province's government.[ After 1718, Peter established colleges in place of the old central agencies of government, including foreign affairs, war, navy, expense, income, justice, and inspection. Later others were added. Each college consisted of a president, a vice-president, a number of councilors and assessors, and a procurator. Some foreigners were included in various colleges but not as president. Peter believed he did not have enough loyal and talented persons to put in full charge of the various departments. Peter preferred to rely on groups of individuals who would keep check on one another.[33]Decisions depended on the majority vote. In 1722, Peter created a neworder of precedenceknown as theTable of Ranks. Formerly, precedence had been determined by birth. To deprive the Boyars of their high positions, Peter directed that precedence should be determined by merit and service to the Emperor. The Table of Ranks continued to remain in effect until the Russian monarchy wasoverthrown in 1917. Peter decided that all of the children of the nobility should have some early education, especially in the areas of sciences. Therefore, on 28 February 1714, he issued a decree calling for compulsory education, which dictated that all Russian 10- to 15-year-old children of the nobility, government clerks, and lesser-ranked officials must learn basic mathematics and geometry, and should be tested on the subjects at the end of their studies.[34] The once powerful PersianSafavid Empireto the south was in deep decline. Taking advantage of the profitable situation, Peter launched theRusso-Persian War of 17221723, otherwise known as "The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great", which drastically increased Russian influence for the first time in theCaucasusandCaspian Searegion, and prevented the Ottoman Empire from making territorial gains in the region. After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over territory to Russia, comprisingDerbent,Shirvan,Gilan,Mazandaran,Baku, andAstrabad. However, within twelve years all the territories would be ceded back to Persia, now led by the charismatic military geniusNader Shah, as part of theTreaties of ReshtandGanjarespectively, and the Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire, which was the common enemy of both.[35] Peter introduced new taxes to fund improvements in Saint Petersburg. He abolished the land tax and household tax and replaced them with apoll tax. The taxes on land and on households were payable only by individuals who owned property or maintained families; the new head taxes, however, were payable byserfsand paupers. In 1725 the construction ofPeterhof, a palace near Saint Petersburg, was completed. Peterhof (Dutchfor "Peter's Court") was a grand residence, becoming known as the "RussianVersailles". the winter of 1723, Peter, whose overall health was never robust, began having problems with hisurinary tractandbladder. In the summer of 1724, a team of doctors performed surgery releasing upwards of four pounds of blocked urine. Peter remained bedridden until late autumn. In the first week of October, restless and certain he was cured, Peter began a lengthy inspection tour of various projects. According to legend, in November, atLakhtaalong the Finnish Gulf to inspect some ironworks, Peter saw a group of soldiers drowning near shore and, wading out into near-waist deep water, came to their rescue.[36] This icy water rescue is said to have exacerbated Peter's bladder problems and caused his death. The story, however, has been viewed with skepticism by some historians, pointing out that the German chroniclerJacob von Staehlinis the only source for the story, and it seems unlikely that no one else would have documented such an act of heroism. This, plus the interval of time between these actions and Peter's death seems to preclude any direct link.[citation needed] In early January 1725, Peter was struck once again withuremia. Legend has it that before lapsing into unconsciousness Peter asked for a paper and pen and scrawled an unfinished note that read:"Leave all to..."and then, exhausted by the effort, asked for his daughter Anna to be summoned.[note 3] Peter died between four and five in the morning 8 February 1725. Anautopsyrevealed his bladder to be infected withgangrene.[10]He was fifty-two years, seven months old when he died, having reigned forty-two years. He is interred inSaints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
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All returns accepted: ReturnsNotAccepted
Era: Medieval
Grade: AU 55
Certification: NGC
